Factors Affecting Fdi Inflow in Tanzania

CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TANZANIA INVESTMENT CENTRE (TIC) Tanzania Investment Centre (TIC) is the primary agency of the Government of Tanzania to coordinate, encourage, promote and facilitate investment in Tanzania and to advise the Government on investment related matters. TIC is a focal point for investors. It is the first point of call for the potential investors; it is a â€Å"one stop facilitative centre for all investors†, engaging in the business of marketing Tanzania as an investment destination. TIC was established in 1997 by the Tanzania Investment Act No. 26 of 1997 to be â€Å"the primary agency of Government to coordinate, encourage, promote and facilitate investment in Tanzania and to advise the Government in Investment related matters† All Government departments and agencies are required by law to cooperate fully with TIC in facilitating investors. As a primary agency of the Government in all investment matters, TIC is charged with the following functions:- †¢ Assist in establishment of enterprises e. g. ncorporation of enterprises; †¢ Obtain necessary licenses, work permits, visas, approvals, facilities or services; †¢ Sort out any administrative barriers confronting both local and foreign investments; †¢ Promote both foreign and local investment activities; †¢ Secure investment sites and assist investors to establish EPZ projects; †¢ Grant Certificates of Incentives, investment guarantees and register technology agreements for all investments, which a re over and above US $ 300,000 and 100,000 for foreign and local investment respectively; †¢ Provide and disseminate up to date information on existing investment opportunities, benefits or incentives available to investors; and †¢ Assist all investors whether or not registered by TIC. TIC headquarters is in Dar es Salaam, but has established Zonal offices in Kilimanjaro, Mwanza and Mbeya regions in order to assist Investors who are based in nearby regions to access TIC services without necessarily traveling to Dar es Salaam. The Zonal offices are responsible in assisting investors to obtain all relevant permits, approvals and licenses they require in order to set up their businesses. In order to strengthen and expedite facilitation services, ten (10) Senior Officers from Government or its Executive Agencies have been permanently stationed at TIC to serve investors under one roof. Presently these officers include those from:- †¢ Ministry of Land, Housing and Human Settlement Development; †¢ Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA); †¢ Immigration Department; †¢ Ministry of Labor, Employment and Youth Development (Labor Department); †¢ Ministry of Industry, Trade and Marketing (Directorate Trade); †¢ Business Registration & Licensing Agency (BRELA).? 2 BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM FDI has been one of the principal beneficiaries of the liberalization of capital flows over recent decades and now constitutes the major form of capital inflow for many African countries, including some low-income ones like Tanzania. Economies are often considered less vulnerable to external financing difficulties when current account deficits are financed largely by FDI inflows, rather than debt-creating capital flows. There is no denying the importance of FDI inflows both for their contribution to sustaining current account imbalances in countries and for their contribution to broader economic growth, through technological spillovers and competition effects. Recent economic reports show that Tanzania lags behind neighbors Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and also Madagascar in its ability to attract foreign investors. A ccording to a top economic official, the failure to execute pro-business reforms is keeping prospective foreign investors away from Tanzania. (Konye Obaji Ori, Afrik. com, Thursday September, 2008). The Chief Executive Officer of the Tanzania Investment Centre, Mr Emmanuel Ole Naiko, said â€Å"even countries with less attractive opportunities and resources were receiving more foreign direct investment because the culture of politicking and negative public sentiments against foreign investors in Tanzania were among factors impeding the inflow of investments in the country†. In recent years, the flow of FDI has been steadily growing. From 2004 to 2005, the inflow grew by 29 percent to reach US $ 916 billion). During the same Tanzania attracted US $ 330. 6 million. To ensure maximum benefit to the economy, potential factors affecting FDI flow should be researched periodically. (Tanzania Investment Report, BOT, 2006). A large proportion of the FDI flow into Tanzania has increased from 552 million US Dollars in 2006 to 600 million US Dollars in 2008, ranking the country among the top ten recipients in Africa. Given its dominance in financial globalization and the potential impact to the economies, FDI tend to pose various challenges to individual recipient countries. For example monitoring and evaluation of the inflows, maintaining macroeconomics stability, and undertaking institutional and policy reforms for the purpose or realizing optimal benefits from the inflows. These challenges obligates Tanzania to increase capacity to compete interms of attracting investments, gaining global market shares and improving social economic welfare. Therefore the main objective of TIC is to facilitate Investment for national growth by enhancing an environment conductive for business and entrepreneurship growth hence attracting FDI inflows. 0. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM For the past two decades, Tanzania had been conceiving several efforts to attract Foreign Direct Investment. Major policy and structural reforms carried out since 1980’s played significant role in improving the investment environment in the country. These efforts have resulted into increase in FDI inflows into the country. However the increase in FDI and related investment posed a need to evaluate potential factors that induce the flow of FDI and should be emphases in this issue. The small number of investors in the country is usually contributed to weak economic performance. So it is important to identify factors that affect these investors not to invest in the country. It is also important to recognize the mixture of positive and negative effects of FDI bring into the country. The researcher will evaluate ways which can be used to maximize the effects of FDI hence leading to economy growth. Therefore the aim of this study is to identify and evaluate the potential factors that affect the flow of FDI into our country. 1. 4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 1. 4. 1 General Objective. To identify and evaluate the potential factors that affect the inflow of FDI in Tanzania so that to maximize the effects of FDI hence leading to the growth of economy. 1. 4. 2 Specific Objectives †¢ To identify and evaluate the sources of FDI †¢ To analyze the role of FDI as a source of economic development †¢ To analyze the effects of FDI in the host country and how this can be controlled. 1. 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. 5. General Questions What are the Potential Factors That Affect FDI Inflows? 1. 5. 2 Specific Questions 1) Will policy measures lead to increase/decrease in FDI inflows? 2) What will happen is some companies with foreign ownership maintain offshore accounts, from whi ch their debt servicing is made directly, thus leading to unknown outflow? 3) What policy measures to be taken as FDI inflow into the country come from different countries with different investment requirement hence having different requirements? 4) What is the effect of availability of highly educated and skilled labor in FDI Inflows? 5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH 1. To the Target Government The study will provide information for developing policies on investment promotion and planning on future investment strategies. Also it will help in improving the necessary environment for attracting FDI inflows in the country. 2. To Future Researchers To help other researchers to conduct future study on the same problem given the gaps this might be encountered by the researcher. Also it can be used as reference for literature reviews on the same problem in other areas relating with FDI. 1. 6. 3 To the Researcher 1) The study is the partial fulfillment of the requirements for Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management to be awarded by the Institute of Finance Management. IFM) 2) The researcher will gain confidence to conduct other research Studies independently at his places of work as to solve long and short term problems due to widened ability in writing and reporting skills. 1. 6. 4 To Investors The study will be of much importance to local and foreign investors, policy makers , donors, academicians as well it will be a useful source of information about the factors that determine FDI inflow in the country. 1. 6. 5 Reference Period The study conducted may be used in the coming three (3) years. 1. 7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study is intended to provide information on the potential factors that affect FDI inflow as well as bring out investors perception of the economy and business environment ranging from macroeconomic situation, infrastructure, financial governance and labour factors. The research will be conducted in Dar es Salaam region at TIC Headquarters and will take approximately two (2) months. The issues to be analyzed here are the potential factors that affect the FDI inflows, the sources of FDI into the country and the impact of FDI to the country both negatively and positively. 8. GAPS TO BE FILLED 1) FDI by locally owned companies has to be analyzed too, as many records shown by the past researchers are for the fully owned by foreigners or partially. 2) To add information on the previously done research on the gap trying to have a census on the set of potential factors affecting FDI inflows. 3) The study will try to overcome or at least reduce the gap as outline above. 9. CONCEPTUAL MODEL Tanzania benefits from FDI because these flows augment the limited Domestic savings and bring with it finance, managerial skills, technology, marketing expertise and market links. However new opportunities also bring risks that should be managed properly, especially in the case of policy reforms e. t. c. 10. ASSUMPTION OF THE STUDY The Researcher anticipates the following assumption in the research process:- 1. 10. 1 Time It is assumed that the time will be sufficient to complete this study. The time given is not sufficient to make the researcher to make a comprehensive study. This implies that the researcher will face difficulties in gathering all the important information for analysis. 1. 10. 2 Respondents It is assumed that some of the respondents will cooperate. Some respondents will also be a problem in the study; this is because of their personal interest and might choose to be untruthful. Also there may be a problem of absence of respondents. 1. 10. 3 Access to Records A problem of fully access to some documents may pose a problem as some documents are termed as very confidential and thus cannot be accessed by anybody especially the outsider. 1. 10. 4 Funds It is assumed that the funds will cover what is on the budget. However any additional costs outside the budgeted one may pose as a problem; as there will be no additional funds from my sponsor. Inexperience in conducting research may lead to some delays hence increase in cost of the study. CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 INTRODUCTION Many researcher has been conducted regarding the analyses of the major determinants of FDI flows but did not come to census on what can be specified as a â€Å"set† of major determinants of FDI inflows, as this varies from one country to another and from one host to another. (World Investment Report, 2008). The flow of FDI to different countries is unequal. The major sources and destination of FDI have been the USA, the European Union, and Japan. Europe is currently the largest recipient and source of FDI. Africa has been receiving the lowest share of global FDI despite efforts by African ountries to attract it. However the climate has improved over the past few years. The growth of domestic output has been greater that that of the population for the first time in years. (Recep Kok et al, Analyses of FDI Determinants in Developing Countries, Journal of Social Economics, Volume 36: 1/2 2009 PP105 – 123). Tanzania recei ved US $ 600 million in 2008 and became the third largest recipient of FDI in SADCC region. However Tanzania has an upside potential to attract more FDI because of its continued political stability, promising prospect in the mining and biogas, and tourism. (World Investment Report, 2008). 1 Meaning and Overview of FDI in Tanzania Recep Kok et al, defines Foreign Direct Investment is as a case where a resident entity in one economy acquires lasting interest in an enterprise in another country’s economy with significant degree of influence. The World Investment Report (WIR) 2008, which was launched by the Secretary General of UNCTAD Dr. Panithpakdi, indicates that the FDI inflow in Africa has recorded an impressive performance. It shows that FDI on the continent has hit a record and that Africa has the highest returns on Investment. The Government has continued to improve the country’s investment climate, by introducing different reforms which will be of interest to investors. However as everyone sees, the foreign investment is highly concentrated in some parts of Tanzania, in the big cities like Dar –Es-Salaam, Mbeya, Arusha e. t. c. Also it is concentrated in the mining areas like Geita, Kahama, Nyamongo, and Tulawaka. In areas where the only product obtained there is agriculture, there are no or few investments. (Tanzania Investment Report, 2006). FDI has some components which are:- 1) Direct Equity Investment; 2) Retained earnings attributable to non-residents; 3) Long-term shareholders and inter-company loans; 4) Short-term shareholders and inter-company loans; and 5) Suppliers credits from related companies. The surge of interest in FDI and multinational companies has been so high that in Tanzania there has been a high expectation in terms of what the companies can do and generally on the development effects of FDI. While FDI can, indeed, contribute to national economic and social development in many ways, the engagement and performance of domestic actors are very crucial. The effect of FDI largely depends on the policies of the host country. This goes beyond the mere liberalization of economies. Deliberate measures to develop human capital and physical and social infrastructure can also be valuable ways to enhance the quality of FDI that countries can attract. Tanzania is making major efforts to increase FDI inflow by improving the investment climate. It has embarked on wide-ranging policy, political and institutional reforms aimed at reducing (and if possible removing) barriers to entry of foreign capital, particularly FDI. Trade investment liberalization, privatization and the creation of various incentives for foreign investment have received considerable attention of the government. Regional economic integration bodies and free trade zones have been created to enlarge the size of markets and adopt common investment regimes at sub-regional and regional levels. These efforts are based on recognition that FDI can stimulate economic growth, generate new employment opportunities, promote transfer of new technologies and contribute to environmental sustainability in the region. (Oyeyinka, 2004) 2 FDI Inflow and Prospect for Tanzania Tanzanian’s Foreign Direct Investment has increased by nearly 15 Percent in 2008, mainly due to investment in natural resources Exploration projects already in operation. Tanzania has ranked number 12 among major FDI receiver African countries after Nigeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Equatorial Guinea, Algeria and Tunisia. Other countries ahead of Tanzania are Madagascar, Zambia, Ghana, DRC and Kenya. (World Investment Report, 2008). However, there is no reason why on earth countries like Zambia and Madgascar should surpass Tanzania, particularly when one looks at the natural resources endowments the country enjoys. Tanzania’s problem has been engagement in too many debates, which inhibited some the making of quick and timely decisions. Giving the example of a country like Mozambique, although it was devastated by the war, had managed to successfully develop its coal mines leaving Tanzanians to debate on who should develop Mchuchuma coal or Liganga iron ore deposits. Since early 1986, The Government of Tanzania, with determination, launched a comprehensive economic reforms and stabilization programme. In pursuit of this, agricultural marketing has been liberalized, foreign exchanged controls have been lifted, price deregulated, enhanced private sector involvement in the economy through privatization programme and the new investment code offering competitive incentives has been in place. These comprehensive economic reforms have resulted into improved competitiveness, lower tariffs, increasing levels of foreign investment in trade, improved key economic indicators and rapid integration into world markets. To this end, the Government is currently embarking on a strenuous exercise to upgrade its institutions and bring them at par with international standards. The expectation is to enhance the country’s competitive position for investment flows destined for the region and meet the challenges of globalization. Table 1:GDP Snapshot for 2004 |GPD |US $ 8. 8bn | |GPD per Capita |USD $ 240 | |GPD Growth |4. 3% | |Agriculture Value Added |47. 6% | |Industry Value Added |14. % | |Services Value Added |38. 0% | Source: World Bank Tanzania’s 15 years track record of largely satisfactory reforms has consolidated a favorable macroeconomic environment, which makes it one of the main incentives for foreign investor. Growth per capita is expected to increase by 3. 4% between 2004 and 2009. (Tanzania Investors Guide, 2002 and beyond). Table 2:FDI Inflows, 2004 – 2007 |Year |US $ mn | |2004 |183. 3 | |2005 |350. 5 | |2006 |522 | |2007 |600 | Source: Bank of Tanzania An increase in Foreign Direct Investment, apparently, indicates that the country’s investment environment has increasingly improved in the manner that investors are now able to predict more precisely profits to be accrued from their investment. Table 3: TIC Approval of Foreign Investment 1990 – 2000 |YEAR |US $ mn | |1990 |47. 25 | |1991 |471. 49 | |1992 |204. 9 | |1993 |527. 05 | |1994 |302. 99 | |1995 |263. 42 | |1996 |467. 85 | |1997 |384. 9 | |1998 |1464. 69 | |1999 |1211. | |2000 |767. 77 | Source: Tanzania Investment Centre 2. POTENTIAL FACTORS THAT ATTRACT FDI The literature groups the factors that attract foreign investment into two groups: external â€Å"push factors† and domestic â€Å"pull factors†. Among the â€Å"pull† factors are: a. Economic and political reforms that boost confidence in the economy; b. Reforms such as debt restructuring which ease the long-run foreign exchange constraint and therefore enhance the sustainability of fo reign exchange inflows; c. Liberalization of foreign exchange flows (both current and capital) in the balance of payments; d. Simplication of red-tape requirements for direct and portfolio investment; and liberalization of restrictions on private sector borrowing from a broad; e. Macroeconomic factors, these are fiscal policy, monetary policy, government stability, government spending regulatory frame work, state intervention in private business, and financial sector stability. The government has to have a clear look on these factors as they affect investors operations; f. The infrastructure and public services including inland transport, ports, electricity and water supply, postal services, telecommunications, customs services, immigration facilities, municipal services, banking services and credit rating; g. Diverse factors including corruption, internal security, domestic political scenario, regional political scenario, domestic economic situation, global economic situation and market expansion; h. Governance factors that include regional trade integration, trade policy, investment incentives, bureaucracy, and tax collection efficiency, effectiveness of legal law, land law and administration and speed of decision making; i. Inflation, availability of business credit, interest rate, depreciation on domestic currency, national payment system and exchange control are among the pull factors. Among the â€Å"push† factors are: a. The relative decline in international interest rates (mostly US dollar rates) when compared to interest rates in developing economies; b. Cyclical downturns in economic activity in developed economies, which reduce the demand for investment funds; and c. A move towards intentional diversification of asset portfolios by major portfolio investors such as pension funds and insurance companies. The literature identified both push and pull factors as being behind the increase in capital flows to developing economies in 1990s. However, it is domestic or â€Å"pull† factors over which policy makers can have direct impact in attracting inflows of private capital. (Asea and Reinhart, 1995) 3. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN BY TANZANIA TO INCREASE FDI INFLOWS There are several ways home countries can increase FDI inflows. These include; a. Reducing political risk by enhancing the credibility of reforms. Sub-Saharan Africa seems to be seen as one homogeneous continent and therefore the bad behavior of few governments often leads to a negative image for all. Credibility also matters for the sustainability of reforms. Reforms that are credible are more likely to be sustainable in the long run as economic agent react positively to policy measures and result in virtuous circle behaviors. (Kasekende and Bhundia, 2000) b. Political reforms, political disorder is very damaging to economic growth and is not conducive environment for both domestic and foreign investment (Kasekende and Bhundia, 2000). Political reforms should be aimed at building frameworks that are more inclusive, encourage power sharing and allow for enhanced public participation in political process. c. Insurance against policy risk. Home countries can sign bilateral or multilateral investment treaties that have legally binding elements establishing the obligations of the host country toward foreign investors from other signatory countries. d. Macroeconomic stability should be ensured, as it is prerequisite for attracting sustainable, long-term foreign investment into a country. Hadjmichael et al (1996) conclude â€Å"the most important impact of policies on private investment behavior was through their effect on macroeconomic instability and uncertainty†. This suggests that greater macroeconomic instability can have a considerable adverse impact on domestic and foreign private in investment. e. External burden should be reduced. In many African countries external debt servicing, most of it official, continues to exact a significant burden on finances. In principle, heavy external debt does not automatically translate into low growth. Growth in export earnings can allow for continued importation investment goods to maintain growth while servicing external debt at the same time. However, if borrowed money is invested primarily in non-traded sector; then the situation will arise where the economy is unable to pay for imports required to maintain growth. 4. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FDI AS A SOURCE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH According to B. Seedha et al in their paper â€Å"Foreign Direct Investment in Africa†, FDI is simply a source of capital. The impact of FDI is dependent on what form it takes. This includes types of FDI, sector scale, duration and location of business and secondary effects. It is important to note that while some have experienced growth because of large FDI inflows, others have not. FDI can contribute to gross domestic products, gross fixed capital formation and balance of payments. Other contributions FDI can make to host country economy include assisting in debt servicing repayments, stimulating export markets, and producing foreign exchange revenues. Another aspect of FDI is that it can serve as source for economic development is in currency stability. FDI can contribute to social development by increasing employment and wages and by replacing warning market sector. FDI may offer poverty reduction, since poverty is related with unemployment. High levels of FDI do not necessarily show domestic gain (B. Seedha et al). Other factors may limit the economic gain to the host country’s economy. Example of such factors includes corporate strategies, and importation of goods and resources used in production. However FDI is mostly affected by country’s instability. The gain in employment, wages and so on may be realized by very small part of the population. When this happens wage differences between income groups will increase and the distribution of income may become unequal. Another negative effect of FDI as a source of economy is where the parent companies dominate the local market, leaving the local companies with no where to go. CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3. 1. INTRODUCTION This section describes the methodologies framework of the study which includes Research paradigms, Research Design, types of measurements, data collection methods and approach, types of data, sampling techniques, sampling procedures, reliability and validity of data, management and analysis of data and limitations of the study. 3. 2RESEARCH PARADIGMS Paradigms or â€Å"School of Thought† in research scholarship are accepted ways of looking at reality and the consequent approach/methods to generate knowledge that is held by a group of intellectuals who have wide influence in that subject area. The basic premise behind the paradigms is based on how people view reality (Lufumbi, 2008). 3. 3 RESEARCH DESIGN: Research design is the overall plan of the research. It is referred as a blueprint for the collection, measurements and analysis of data. During the study the Case Study design will be used. This is due to the fact that the research will be conducted in a single organization, and also case study design allows variety methods of data collection methods. In addition to that case study design will gives the room to researcher to make rigorous analysis of the organization under the study. Case study design is also less costly compared to other research designs. However the case study design limits the researcher from generalization to other unit of the same kind because it may not be a true representative sample. It allows the researcher to be able to get close to the sources of information. 3. 4 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES: In analysing the data the researcher will adopt both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Tables will also be used by the researcher to present the information where applicable. 3. 5TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to objects or observation, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the number assigned (Kothari, 2004). Technically speaking measurement is the process mapping aspects of range according to some rules of correspondence. The measurement of the collected data will be delivered score that will be obtained from the respondent when making sense of data that would make from the research development. The delivered score will be of course those from face to face interview, questionnaires, documentations and observation. 3. 6 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: The simple Random sampling approach will be used to select the sample. The researcher expects to follow the following approach in selecting the sample:- †¢ All Foreign Investors registered with Tanzania Investment Centre as a population to be studied will be identified through the register. Sample of foreign investors will be drawn randomly. †¢ Judgment approach to sampling will be used to select the items to be studied. 3. 7 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND APPROACHES The data to be collected are those which will be able to address the research objectives and answer the research questions. Both primary and secondary data will be used in this study and the research intends to use several relevant data collection method to collect them. 3. 7. 1Primary Data Primary data are original works of research or raw data without interpretation or pronouncements that present of official opinion or position. Secondary data are those data obtained from literature sources. These are the ones that have already been collected by the other people for some other purposes. This is second had information. Secondary data include both raw data and published ones (Sunders et al, 2000). The following methods will be used in collecting primary data; Interview: This method will be use for the purpose of seeking clarifications on some of data collected. For this reason the interview will be in form of verbal and unstructured. Questionnaire: The researcher will set relevant questions on factors attracting FDI inflow, and those questionnaires will be distributed to different staffs who will answer them. This method will be used to give adequate time to think about the question and respond to them accordingly. These will be administered to TIC staffs in order to collect data relating to such issues like what they think attract foreign investors to invest in Tanzania, what hinder foreign investors to invest in the country, the advantages of FDI inflow in Tanzania. , and how do they purchase, issue and receive stores. Observation: The researcher will observe and participates directly in daily activities of TIC. This will enable the researcher to analyze each particular activity effectively and appropriately. Also this method will make help to the researcher to detect the behavior of the respondents a) Documentary Source In this course of collecting data, the researcher will be trying to go through different document held by TIC. 2. Secondary Data The researcher will collect secondary data through the review of various literatures from different sources such as minutes, reports, policies and legislation regarding the investments in Tanzania. 7. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA The researcher will make sure the measurable data are valid by controlling the questionnaires, and interview and ensure that are directed to the right person at TIC and make sure the reliability of the data by reviewing information which is from reliable and right documents. 1. Reliability Reliability refers to the question of whether a measuring instrument or process can produce the same results if successively employed by different researchers (Ndunguru, 2007). It refers to the extent to which a measure is giving consistent and stable results in a measurement process. 2. Validity Validity helps us to measure what it sets out to measure consistently and in a stable manner. It refers to persistence of systematic error in measurement process (Ndunguru, 2007). The validity of the research results is ensured id adequate physical or statistical control is put in place such that research measurement process produces accurate data. Generally validity is about a researcher measuring what he/she out to measure. 8. MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 1. Data Management Data will be collected from respective sources by using questionnaire, personal interviews. The respondents are randomly selected. However whenever the approached interviewee was not accessible at that time, the next nearest interviewee will be approached. 2. Data Analysis The data collected from questionnaires, interviews and documents is going to be edited, coded and summarized in order to get information relating to problems. The researcher will analyze and test the data using descriptive method, text and schedules, and tables will be used to validate relationship between variables. 3. 9. 3 Data Processing The researcher will use coding in data processing. This includes numbering and heading so as to simplify and reduce the ambiguity to the reader. Collection of data using questionnaire will be entered in the computer so as to make coding. 3. 9. 4 Data Presentation The findings of the study will be presented in a form of narration description with illustration of tables and diagrams where applicable. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Immanuel D. Mzava & David Hillier (2004) â€Å"Does Country’s Tax Structure determine its Foreign Direct Investment Flow? † The African Journal of Finance & Management, Volume 14:1 Barbara Seedha, Lauren Maxwel & Joseph Horton (2000) Foreign Direct Investment in Africa† The African Journal of Finance & Management, Volume 14:1 Bank of Tanzania (2001) â€Å"Report on the Study of Foreign Private Capital Flows in Mainland Tanzania† Tanzania Investment Report. Bank of Tanzania (2006) â€Å"Report on Foreign Private Investment in Tanzaniaà ¢â‚¬  Tanzania Investment Report. Recep Kok & Bernur Acikgoz Ersoy (2009) â€Å"Analyses of FDI determinants in Developing Countries† International Journal of Social Economics Volume 36: ? PP 105 – 123 www. emeraldinsight. com Bhinda, N and M. Martin (1994). â€Å"Eastern Africa – Survey of Foreign Investors†, Report by Exocomisti Association for the World Bank. Chege, M (1999). Politics of Development: Institutions and National Governance†, Paper presented for Africa in the 21st Century Initiative (Washington D. C†¦ World Bank) IMF (1999). â€Å"The Cross-Border Initiative in Eastern and Southern Africa†, African and Policy Development and Review Department, IMF. Kasekende L. and I. Hussain (1997). â€Å"Private Capital Flows to Sub-Saharan Africa: What’s the Real Story? Paper presented at Seminar, A New Paradigm of Financing Development and Development Cooperation, March 1997, Stockholm. Kasekende L. , D. Kitabire and M. Marti n (1998). â€Å"Capital Inflows and Macroeconomic Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa†, in G. K. Hellier (1998). Capital Accounts Regimes and Developing Countries (London: Macmillan Press) Kasekende L. and A. Bhundia (2000). â€Å"Attracting Capital Inflow to Africa: Essential Elements of a Policy Package. Advanced Unedited Copy. UNCTAD (1999), â€Å"Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Performance and Potential†, (New York and Geneva, 1999). TIC (2002 and beyond). â€Å"Tanzania Investors Guide: Investment Opportunities and Facilitation† (United Republic of Tanzania, March 2002) C. Makunike (Tuesday, September 30, 2008). â€Å"Tanzania’s Foreign Direct Investment inflow up by 15 Percent†. (www. tradeafrica. com) D. Makangale (Thursday, January 22, 2009). â€Å"Investment Climate Attractive† (Tanzania: Daily News Paper) Macias J. B and Massa I. (June 2009). The Global Financial Crisis and Sub-Saharan Africa: The Effects of Slowing Private Capital Inflow on Growth† Results of ODI Research Presented in Preliminary Form for Discussion and Critical Comment. (London: Overseas Development Institute). Oyeyinka, B. (2004). â€Å"How c an Africa Benefit from Globalization†? ATPS Special Paper Series No. 17 www. tic. co. tz visited on 3rd March 2010 APPENDICES APPENDIX I Institute of Finance Management, P. O. Box 3918, Dar es Salaam, 10TH March, 2010. Dear Respondent, I am a student at the Institute of Finance Management undertaking Postgraduate Diploma in Financial Management. I am researching on the â€Å"Potential Factors that Affect Foreign Direct Investment Inflow in Tanzania†. The questionnaire aims at finding data for a research paper to be presented to the Institute of Finance Management as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of Postgraduate Diploma in Financial Management. I kindly request you to put a tick after appropriate answer and where applicable explain why when requested to do so. The information you give will be strictly confidential and will be used for the purpose of this research. Thanking you in advance. Yours truly, Kwareh, Karerema R. APPENDIX II RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE A: GENERAL INFORMATION Date completed: ________/_______/_________ Centre Name: ______________________________________ Name and position of the person completing this questionnaire: ____________________________________________________________ _ Centre Address: _____________________________________________ Tel: __________________ Fax: _______________ E-mail: ____________ Please give details of alternative person whom I may contact incase I have any questions: __________________________________________________________ Date of Commencing Operations: _____________/ _____________/ __________ B: GENERAL QUESTIONS 1. To what extent have the following macroeconomic factors affected investment in our country? |Very strong +ve effect|Strong |Limited +ve Effect |No Effect |Limited |Strong |Very Strong –ve Effect| | |+ve effect | | –ve Effect |–ve Effect | | |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 | At start – upNow Fiscal policy( ) ( ) Monetary policy( ) ( ) Government Stability( ) ( ) Please add any additional Information ____________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______ 2. To what extent have the availability of condition of the following I nfrastructures and services affected in our country? Very strong +ve effect|Strong |Limited +ve Effect |No Effect |Limited |Strong |Very Strong –ve Effect| | |+ve effect | | |–ve Effect |–ve Effect | | |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 | At start – upNow Inland transport (roads, rails)( ) ( ) Access to seaport( ) ( ) Airport and Air transportation( ) ( ) Electricity supply( ) ( ) Water supply( ) ( ) Please add any additional Information ____________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______ 3. To what extent have the following financial factors affected investment in Tanzania? Very strong +ve effect|Strong |Limited +ve Effect |No Effect |Limited |Strong |Very Strong –ve Effect| | |+ve effect | | |–ve Effect |–ve Effect | | |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 | At start – upNow Inflation( ) ( ) Availability of business finances/credit( ) ( ) Interest rates ( ) ( ) Depreciation of domestic currency( ) ( ) Exchange Control( ) ( ) Please add any additional Information ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________ 4. To what extent the following governance factors affected investment opportunities in Tanzania? |Very strong +ve effect|Strong |Limited +ve Effect |No Effect |Limited |Strong |Very Strong –ve Effect| | |+ve effect | | |–ve Effect |–ve Effect | | |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 | At start – upNow Regional Trade( ) ( ) Trade policy( ) ( ) Bureaucracy ( ) ( ) Tax collection efficiency( ) ( ) Land law & administration( ) ( ) Please add any additional Information ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________ 5. Please specify the most important factors that influence your initial decision to invest in Tanzania? ____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________ 6. What is the likely direction of foreign direct investment in Tanzania in the medium term? Please tick appropriate box |Expansion |No Change |Contraction | | | | | 7. What measures can the government undertake to improve investor’s attractiveness to continue investing in Tanzania and attract new investors? a. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ b. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ c. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ d. ____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Thank you for your time. APPENDIX III TIME SCHEDULE This timetable will be of great help to me as a researc her to organize activities to be carried out and allocate the time accordingly. This will act as my guideline. The estimated time of conducting the research is 9 weeks. |Week |Activity | |1st – 2nd Week |Preliminary preparation i. e. research proposal, budget, finding the | | |assistant for help if necessary e. t. c. |3rd – 4th Week |Preparation of questionnaires, visiting the respondents and distribution | | |of questionnaires | |5th – 6th Week |Collection of questionnaire from respondents, analysis of the data, | | |verification and processing | |7th – 8th Week |Revising the paper, re-writing and bidding | |9th Week |Presenting the paper and defending | APPENDIX IV RESEARCH BUDGET |1. 0 |STATIONARY |TSHS | |1. 1 |Ream of ruled paper x2 @ 7,000 | 14,000 | |1. 2 |Ream of A4 plain papers x 2 @ 8,000 | 16,000 | |1. |Flash Disk x 1 @ 50,000 | 50,000 | |1. 4 |Ball pen, pencil, collection fluid | 10,000 | |2. 0 |SECRETARIAL SERVICES | | |2. 1 |Proposal: Typ ing and printing x 2 copies | 100,000 | |2. 2 |Research: Typing and printing x 2 copies | 150,000 | |2. 3 |Binding | 50,000 | |2. 4 |Photocopying of documents | 20,000 | |3. |RESEARCH EXPENSES | | |3. 1 |Assistance Researcher | 80,000 | |3. 2 |Transport to and fro | 250,000 | |3. 3 |Breakfast/lunch e. t. c | 100,000 | |3. 4 |Consultation | 50,000 | | |Sub-total | 890,000 | | |+ Contingency 30% |1,157,000 |

End Stage Dilated Cardiomyopathy CDCM Health And Social Care Essay

Approximately 3 million Americans suffer from end-stage DCM, and another 400,000 are diagnosed yearly [ 1 ] . Many of them suffer every twenty-four hours from bosom failure and every twelvemonth end-stage DCM is a lending factor in about a one-fourth million deceases [ 2 ] . As the population ages, the incidence of end-stage DCM is expected to increase greatly [ 3 ] . In congestive bosom failure ( CHF ) , antecedently normal bosom musculus becomes damaged, taking to a generalised weakening of the walls of the cardiac Chamberss [ 4 ] . To counterbalance for the weakening of their muscular walls, the cardiac Chamberss dilate in a procedure called â€Å" remodeling † [ 5 ] . The weakening and the dilation of the bosom musculus finally lead to bosom failure [ 6 ] . Dilated Cardiomyopathy [ 7 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //images.ddccdn.com/cg/images/en1294847.jpg Although in many instances no cause ( etiology ) is evident, end-stage DCM likely resulted from harm to the myocardium produced by a assortment of toxic, metabolic, or infective agents. It may besides be due to hempen alteration of the myocardium from old myocardial infarctions [ 8 ] . Patient forecast depends on the phase of the disease but is typically characterized by a high mortality rate. End-stage DCM will do decease due to progress, irreversible bosom failure and other jobs such as arrhythmias and stroke [ 9 ] . Other than bosom organ transplant, there are presently no healing intervention options for end-stage patients with this disease. However, other options such as Ventricular Assist Device ( VAD ) and Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy ( CRT ) can besides be applied. [ 10 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scimitarequity.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/cli_v2-300Ãâ€"258.gifA Possible Solution – Heart Transplant[ 11 ] Heart graft is a surgical graft process performed on patients with end-stage bosom failure due to distend myocardiopathy or terrible coronary arteria disease. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.barnesjewish.org/upload/images/Transplant/Heart % 20Transplant/Conditions % 20Leading % 20to % 20Transplant-435.gif The most common process is to take a on the job bosom from a late deceased organ giver ( homograft ) and engraft it into the patient. The patient ‘s ain bosom may either be removed ( orthotopic process ) or, less normally, left in to back up the donor bosom ( heterotopic process ) . Orthotopic process of cardiac organ transplant. [ 12 ] How bosom is transplanted: [ 12 ] A midline scratch is made over the breastbone to open the chest pit to acquire to the bosom. The great vass of the bosom are attached to a heart-lung beltway machine that enables the organic structure to keep blood flow to the organic structure and encephalon. The unhealthy bosom is removed and a healthy donor bosom is so sutured into topographic point. The heart-lung beltway machine is removed and the new bosom is restarted. Heterotropic process of bosom graft. [ 13 ] The bosom is donated by person who has been declared brain-dead but remains on life support. The donor bosom must be matched every bit closely as possible to the patient ‘s tissue type to cut down rejection of the new bosom by the organic structure. Because giver Black Marias are in short supply, graft can merely be carried out after extended scrutiny and probe have been performed on both giver and patient to guarantee the best possible result for both sides is achieved and to minimise complications. The patients need to be chronic plenty to necessitate a new bosom, yet healthy plenty to have and last with it. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //a248.e.akamai.net/7/248/430/20080911223522/www.merckmedicus.com/ppdocs/us/common/cecils/b9781416028055500872/images/f001.jpgThe Risks of Heart TransplantDuring the first twelvemonth, 25 % of bosom graft receivers have marks of a possible rejection. The receiver ‘s immune system regards the new bosom as a â€Å" foreign organic structure † and attacks it. Therefore, the patient has to have life-long immunosuppressive drugs to stamp down the immune system from rejecting the giver ‘s bosom. Immunosuppressive drugs may weaken the patient ‘s immune system and cause infections, malignant neoplastic disease, diabetes melllitus, osteoporeosis every bit good as kidney disease. [ 16 ] Receiving bosom from a close comparative whose blood and tissue type match the patients can cut down the dose of immunosuppressive drugs as it can cut down rejection. Besides, failure of the donor bosom may besides go on over clip, due to the same grounds that caused the original bosom to neglect and if the patient ‘s organic structure rejects the donor bosom or if cardiac homograft vasculopathy develops. Patients who have a failed bosom graft can be considered for a retransplant. [ 17 ] Additionally, the patients might hold the hazard of geting infection during the graft. There is besides a perioperative mortality of anesthesia and surgery between 0.03 % and 0.05 % due to change by reversal reaction to medicines and take a breathing jobs. [ 18 ] However, in my sentiment, the minute chance of mortality for the hazard of anaethesia should non deter a patient from undergoing bosom graft.The Effectiveness of Heart TransplantA bosom graft can reconstruct the wellness and energy experienced prior to bosom failure. The bosom graft receivers are placed in the advantaged place of taking their former normal and active lives, with drawn-out life. [ 19 ] After bosom graft, patients receive a new functioning bosom and their organic structures regain the normal bosom ‘s map. Quality of life is normally good, particularly if the side effects of the immunosuppressant drugs can be kept to a lower limit. [ 20 ] I believe that bosom graft is appropriate in handling end-stage DCM as the new bosom is able to pump blood out of the bosom to provide O needed by respiring cells in the organic structure. So, the patients do non necessitate to necessitate bosom machines any longer. The success rate one twelvemonth after the graft is 85 % to 90 % in twelvemonth 2006. This survey besides shows that 75 % are alive after five old ages ; and between 50 % and 60 % are alive after 10 old ages. [ 20 ] The operative mortality rate is about 8 % for the first twelvemonth from twelvemonth 2000 to 2005, which are considered rather low. [ 20 ] Thus, I strongly agree that bosom graft is an effectual solution to end-stage DCM due to its high success rate and comparatively low mortality rate. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.elsevier.es/ficheros/images/255/255v57n12/origen/255v57n12-13069891fig10.jpg Above figure shows the actuarial endurance curve, with an ab initio crisp lessening over the first twelvemonth followed by a less pronounced diminution of about 2.2 % annually. [ 21 ]Economic and Ethical IssuesThe cost of bosom graft is really high. The estimated cost to transfer a bosom without complications is about between US $ 140,000 to US $ 150,000. [ 22 ] Estimated U.S. Average 2008 Freshman Billed Charges Per Transplant [ 22 ] 30 yearss pre-transplant Procurement Hospital graft admittance Doctor during graft 180 yearss post-transplant admittance Immunosuppressant Sum Long-run direction of bosom graft related to immunosuppression, complications, and psychosocial accommodations bring a big economic load for those from hapless households. This fiscal issue calls for authorities subsidies for those hapless patients. Heart graft should, as a affair of national policy, be considered a medically necessary portion of attention for patients with bosom failure. Thus, authorities should go on to give resources to this expensive and complex, but life-saving, engineering. However, some people argued that this significant sum of money should be spent on bettering the criterions of public wellness and life alternatively of developing bosom graft. Nevertheless, I think that these controversial voices can be compromised if the authorities gives a balanced allotment for investing in bosom graft and the societal public assistance of general community. [ 1154 words ] Ethically, bosom graft is objected by some people sing their spiritual and societal norm. In Japan, a dead individual with an uncomplete organic structure before entombment is considered a bad luck. Most household of the deceased have denied consent to the Black Marias due to non wishing the thought of surgery on the organic structure, non being certain if the patient would hold agreed and non holding as a household whether to travel in front. Although age and sex of the possible giver did non impact the determination, households of cultural minority givers were more likely to decline consent than those of white givers. [ 23 ] Thus, I think informed consent, non killing in recovering variety meats, regard for giver and household wants, and prohibition of active mercy killings are among the rules that are of import to this ethical foundation of bosom graft. Besides, more persons should voluntarily register as organ giver to avoid the job of household refusal. Although merchandising and purchasing of Black Marias can increase the supply of Black Marias, it is frequently being argued as Black Marias are being commercialized and this violates human self-respect. Besides, most of these Black Marias are obtained illicitly by improper people for the interest of doing money. In my sentiment, rigorous Torahs should be enacted and enforced to control illegal bosom graft market. Even though there are some ethical statements sing bosom graft, I think that these statements should non deter critical DCM patients from undergoing bosom graft as they can upgrade their life after the graft, following the presently increasing endurance rates.Alternate SolutionsVentricular Assist Device ( VAD )Figure A shows the location of the bosom and the typical equipment needed for an implantable LVAD. Figure B shows how the LVAD is connected to the bosom. [ 24 ] VAD is a mechanical circulatory device that is used to replace the map of a failing bosom and is intended for short term usage – for patients retrieving from bosom onslaughts or bosom surgery ) or long term usage – for patients enduring from congestive bosom failure, due to end-stage DCM. [ 25 ] VADs are designed to help either the right ( RVAD ) or left ( LVAD ) ventricle, or both at one time ( BiVAD ) . Which of these types is used depends chiefly on the implicit in bosom disease and the pneumonic arterial opposition that determines the burden on right ventricle. Long-run VADs are usually used as finish therapy and a span to recovery for DCM. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Bar Graph: Treatment of End-Stage Heart Failure VAD is an effectual option in instance bosom graft could non be carried out due to inaccessibility of givers ‘ Black Marias or other factors. It is a more realistic solution to end-stage DCM as it helps the bosom to pump blood from the chief pumping chamber to the remainder of organic structure, while the patients are waiting for new bosom. In the last few old ages, VADs have improved significantly in footings of supplying endurance and quality of life among receivers. [ 28 ] Besides, VAD is instantly available, has planned intercession, accomplishable good degree of physical activity and possible recovery of native bosom. [ 29 ] However, the patient needs to be invariably depending on continually power-supplied device, and hazards including blood coagulums, hemorrhage, infection, and device malfunctions are involved with utilizing VAD. [ 30 ] When blood comes in contact with VAD, it tends to coagulate more. Blood coagulums can distrupt blood flow and may barricade blood vas taking to of import variety meats such as the encephalon, therefore doing serious complications such as shot or even decease. [ 30 ] The quotation mark above illustrates the hazards of VAD. This quotation mark, obtained from National Library of Medicine of United States through its website www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency is considered really valid and dependable as it agrees with the information provided by the on-line encyclopaedia of A.D.A.M. , Inc. Accredited by American Accreditation HealthCare Commission or URAC, URAC ‘s accreditation plan is an independent audit to verify that A.D.A.M. follows strict criterions of quality and answerability. A.D.A.M. is among the first to accomplish this of import differentiation for on-line wellness information and services. A.D.A.M. Medical Review Board of Cardiology is headed by Marshall A. Corson, MD, Cardiology Section Chief Harborview Medical Center and Associate Professor of Medicine of University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, Washington. Besides, this article is invariably updated with the last update on 22nd May 2010. However, the hazard of blood curdling can be reduced by taking anti-coagulants for every bit long as the patient is implanted with VAD.Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy ( CRT )CRT is besides another signifier of therapy for CHF caused by end-stage DCM. It uses a specialised pacesetter to re-coordinate the action of the right and left ventricles in patients with bosom failure by pacing both ventricles at the same time. [ 31 ] When the work of the two ventricles is coordinated, the bosom ‘s efficiency additions, and the sum of work it takes for the bosom to pump blood is reduced. [ 32 ] T0 S: septate contraction oncoming ; T0 LW: sidelong wall contraction oncoming ; T0 A: vertex contraction oncoming ; T0 ANT: anterior contraction oncoming ; T0 INF: inferior contraction oncoming ; CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy. This figure shows the times of oncoming of contraction in different walls. IN CHF patients, inferior-to-anterior activation sequence was ever with a bigger hold at baseline, which reduced after CRT. [ 34 ] CRT Device [ 33 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mayoclinic.org/images/crt-2col.jpg hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ispub.com/ispub/ijc/volume_6_number_1_5/synchronization_parameters_and_perfusion_improvement_after_cardiac_resynchronization_therapy/perfusion-fig1.jpg Surveies with CRT have demonstrated its ability to better the symptoms, the exercising capacity, and the feeling of wellbeing of many patients with moderate to severe bosom failure. [ 35 ] Surveies have besides shown that CRT can better both the anatomy and map of the bosom – care to cut down the size of the dilated left ventricle, and hence bettering the left ventricularA expulsion fraction. Most significantly, CRT can better the endurance of patients with bosom failure. [ 35 ] This beginning, an article entitled â€Å" The consequence of cardiac resynchronization on morbidity and mortality in bosom failure † is written by voluntary scientists and health care professionals. The statements have a strict reappraisal and blessing procedure before being published. Many statements are written jointly with and reviewed by the American College of Cardiology and is published in extremely recognized diaries such as The New England Journal of Medicine. The grounds below from another beginning shows that the statements given from the article are true. CRT reduces hazard of all-cause mortality by 40 % , bosom failure ( HF ) due to DCM by 45 % and sudden decease by 46 % . [ 36 ] Degree centigrades: UsersafiqahDesktopallcausechrtext.jpg

Dressing for Success

Robert Johnson Eng. 099 Fran Bradshaw Feb. 5, 2010 Dressing for Success Have you ever thought that dressing for success could bring about success to your everyday life? A lot of people these days as far as young men and women usually dress in a very urban style dealing with clothes that may be nice but are often worn incorrectly. For example somebody could have on a nice pair of Levi jeans but wear them to where they sag all the way off of their butt which is improper and just doesn’t look good.People also try to wear clothes that tend to be too big yet they still wear it which is funny to me, but not funny in the eyes of a business man or somebody important who may be watching. You never know who could be watching that’s why I feel young men and women should show themselves to be presentable, as well as professional, because first impressions are everything in society. How you come off to people and show yourself matters so much in society. As your first impression you should want to come off as a well dressed individual.Before people even meet you if they see that you’re well dressed that’s like a bonus for you because they’ll appreciate you more. People will know that you carry yourself in a professional manner, and won’t treat you as just who doesn’t matter, but a man or women of importance. Also dressing nicely shows that you have a good respect for yourself and if people see that just off of how you dress they will have way more respect for you. This can also help in any business venture you take, because what boss doesn’t like to see a potential or future employee who shows himself to look good and be professional.Which leads me to why looking professional is also a benefit of dressing well. As young men and women we strive to seek a well paying job whether in school or out of school. With well paying jobs comes an interview which looking professional is one of the keys to being viewed amongst the r est of the people who may be going for the same job you are. Not even in just a job setting, but in school as well with any teacher treating you better just for the simple fact that you come to class looking ready to learn.Also if you ever thought while you were in school that you may have wanted to pledge a fraternity or sorority, then looking professional might get you looked at as a potential choice for either one. Along with dressing for success being presentable is key. You must show that you’re not the same as everybody else but different in your own way. Everybody these days can put on a suit, but it takes the person inside the suit to really present there selves in a unique way from everybody else.You should present yourself to where it really shows who you are as an individual. Don’t set yourself up for failure and dress to where you present yourself as someone who is just like everybody else. In conclusion dressing for success deals with three things looking professional, being presentable, and your first impression. Even then it’s on you to strive to stand out amongst other people as person who dresses not simply to look good but for respect and admiration. That in its self is worth dressing for success every day.

Consider one area of Tort law which you feel policy factors have had a Essay

Consider one area of Tort law which you feel policy factors have had a particular part to play in the development of the law.(Have chosen police immunity) - Essay Example There are four inherent elements to this negligence. These elements include the notion that there is a duty to exhibit a reasonable amount of care when dealing with another individual, the breach of that duty, the notion that the breach of that duty caused physical harm to another individual and finally, the breach did in fact cause harm from a legal standpoint. In order to examine the police immunity with regards to breach of duty within the realm of the tort of negligence, it is prudent that we examine the background of breach of duty and the charge of negligence resulting from it.1 The tort of negligence like all other legal causes in common law arose out of a necessity based on reason wherein many different actions were brought based on the fault of individuals with regards to inflicting harm on others as a direct result of carelessness. It dates back to the case of Heaven v Pender (1885). This was the first case wherein negligence was alleged wherein Pender who was a dock owner charged with the responsibility of putting up a staging outside of a ship owned by another party. He placed the staging up. An employee, who was subcontracted to paint the ship, mounted the staging and was hurt when one of the ropes supplied by the defendant broke and caused the plaintiff to sustain injuries. The plaintiff then brought a suit against Mr. Pender as Mr. Pender did supply the defective rope that eventually broke. Additionally, there was evidence that the rope had been scorched and there was prior knowledge that the rope was unfit for supporting the staging. The judge in this case ruled for the plaintiff and established a precedent with regards to negligence arising from a breach of duty.2 Yet another early case in establishing the tort of negligence is the case of Le Lievre v Gould [1893] which called to task the notion of professional negligence. Professional negligence according to common

Relationships Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Relationships - Essay Example He taught me how to write before I went to school; every day; he would come home and sit with me on a small chair and table next to his huge study desk. At first, I would play around in the room running around and sometimes upsetting him with my toy cars. Most times, he would smile understandingly and after he was done working, I would help him tidy up the room. However, he gradually started insisting I sit still and he would then teach me how to print out letters, words and eventually sentences. At first, I did not like the restrictions involved while he was teaching me, but I gradually got used to them. In addition, when my father wants you to do something, it is easier to do it than resist him since he will inevitably wear you out. This was the first lesson I learned about him that informed most of my interactions and sometimes-even fights with him. I began school at a slightly older age than most of my colleagues, but when the teachers realized I had been homeschooled, they put m e in an accelerated program and I soon caught up with my peers. However, my father’s involvement in my life went beyond academics since he was an ardent sports fan and particularly loved football. Every Sunday, he would take me with him to the local stadium and we would watch the game and cheer his favorite team, which soon become our favorite. Sometimes when he came from work early, we would kick around a ball at the yard outside our house and then I would either join him in his study or watch TV in the den as he worked. One thing that he and I both loved apart from football was reading. He was a voracious reader and his study was filled with hundreds of books from all over the world; I had taken to perusing through some of those as I grew older and when he noticed my interest he bought me several children’s versions which I enjoyed immensely. By the time, I was 13, I had started reading most of the original works in his collection

How does Greek translate into English in Bible Essay

How does Greek translate into English in Bible - Essay Example According to dictionary definitions, the core meaning of the Greek word is weakness, feebleness and being without strength, powerless. (blueletterbible.org) The Bible uses this word astheneo very often in connection with the healing miracles of Jesus, for example when he healed lepers (Matt. 10:8), â€Å"any sick with divers diseases† (Luke 4:40), Lazarus (John 11:1-6) and the Authorised Version often uses this same word â€Å"sick† to translate them. There are some cases, however, where this same word astheneo translated with different English words. In John 5:3-4 there is mention of an â€Å"impotent man† and in John 6:2 this same astheneo is translated as â€Å"diseased.† Having seen examples of the healing miracles of Jesus, the disciples were sent out by Jesus with a dual mission: â€Å"And he sent them to preach the kingdom of God, and to heal the sick† (Luke 9:2) This gospel usage focuses on medical sickness, and the curing of disease as a de monstration of the power of Jesus. In the New Testament letters of Paul, however, the word astheneo is applied not only to physical causes, but also spiritual causes, and the most common translation here is the English word â€Å"weak†, as for example: â€Å"it (= the law) was weak through the flesh† (Romans 8:3) and â€Å"And being not weak in faith†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Romans 4:19) Paul uses astheneo to contrast the weakness of human beings with the power of God: â€Å"For we also are weak in him, but we shall live with him by the power of God.† (2 Cor. 13:4) In the next verse of the passage in the book of James the author uses a different Greek word, kamno, which has a primary meaning of â€Å"weary† and a secondary meaning â€Å"sick† (blueletterbible.org). The translation into English repeats with the same word â€Å"sick†, however: â€Å"And the prayer of the faith shall save the sick, and the Lord shall raise him up, and if he have commit ted sins, they shall be forgiven him.† (James 5:15) There are only two other New Testament examples of the word kamno and they both concentrate on the primary meaning of â€Å"weary† : â€Å"†¦lest ye be wearied and faint in your minds† (Hebrews 12:3) and â€Å"And hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name’s sake has laboured and hast not fainted.† These examples show that the New Testament uses two Greek concepts which range from purely medical disease to spiritual weakness and to weariness in maintaining actual life or spiritual life. The two terms astheneo and kamno overlap somewhat in their basic meaning and so translators do have some lee-way in choosing which of these emphases to bring out in their version. The English words â€Å"sick† or â€Å"diseased† tend to have a connotation of the physical condition of a person, while â€Å"weary† or â€Å"faint† tends to have a connotation of the mental or spiritu al condition of a person. In the Bible there is sometimes a clear distinction between these two dimensions, as for example when a person who suffers from a disease like leprosy is healed, but very often it is not clear whether a physical affliction is referred to, or a spiritual one. Looking at the letter of James it appears that the first verse echoes the gospel emphasis on physical healing. The work of Jesus wandering through the region, preaching the gospel and healing people is the inspiration for this usage. The second verse, which stresses the weariness aspect of kamno, leans on the emphasis of Paul, however. The connection between sin and sickness is much stronger, and the healing power of Jesus is shown as

Related to Bussiness Ethics (see the assignment creteria) Essay

Related to Bussiness Ethics (see the assignment creteria) - Essay Example Since 1999 Microsoft has been at the centre of a number of legal disputes with both the US Government and the European Commission. At the heart of the disagreements have been accusations that Microsoft had been exploiting its monopoly power in order to reduce competition, and consequently choice, in the marketplace. Microsoft was accused of anti competitive behavior in the United States and had severe financial penalties inflicted on them in an anti trust law court action in Europe. Whilst the financial penalties were relatively easy for Microsoft to bear, the company continued to face accusations of poor ethics and unfair tactics) In your opinion, how important is it to stakeholders in a company that the ethics of the CEO match those of the organization? Explain your answer with reference to Bill Gates during his tenure as CEO at Microsoft. How well a business corporation performs in financial terms is significant for a broad group of people that includes potential/existing investors, creditors, employees or managers. With differing information needs and purposes, each category of stakeholders should be provided with data that is comprehensive, relevant and reliable, so as to allow an informed opinion to be reached on the corporations financial performance. However, all too often, the customer is left out of this equation. The situation is no different in the case of Microsoft Corporation, which has tremendous reach and market share, but whose customers have very little say in the affairs of the company. Bill Gates’ personal efforts as a philanthropist is widely appreciated,– both in terms of money and energy. Yet, the history of Microsoft since its inception shows that the organization is a purely economic enterprise, whose sole purpose is profits and whose foresight stops with the next quarter. This dev iation in behavior between the Chief Executive Officer and his organization is the

Compact car Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compact car - Essay Example Compact cars are also chosen as a popular second vehicle to use for running errands without spending a fortune in gas bills. These are also at the lower priced end of the market compared to SUV's and are more affordable compared to the SUV's. Cars begin at $10,000 and move upwards making them easier to buy. They may also have lesser features in the basic models to fit the budget. Similarly, smaller size translates into lower maintenance costs. Handling is another positive factor. The small compact car is definitely more maneuverable in the congested downtown areas and the smaller parking spaces. During the peak traffic times or when on congested highways, a compact car seems more easy to handle. Compact cars have a lower visibility due to their low height making it difficult to see with ease for shorter people. They also have a lower record of safety when it comes to collision impacts. Their smaller size makes them more vulnerable to impacts, and they are often highly damaged when involved in an accident. The compact falters when it comes to interior space and legroom. For a family of four it is just right and for those who are of above average build, well, after long distances they should be ready for a few cramps.

The effect on the 1990 Clean Air Act on the Twin Cities Research Paper

The effect on the 1990 Clean Air Act on the Twin Cities - Research Paper Example Air Quality in the Twin Cities Midway through the 20th century, the United States started growing concerned with air quality, especially in larger cities. Beginning with the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, the government would continue to pass Acts that would help research and regulate air pollution. In 1963 the first version of the Clean Air Act was passed following the research gained by the 1955 Act. This CAA set up regulations and standards to monitor air pollution, giving the newly formed Environmental Protection Agency the power to enforce these standards. Today, our focus will be a later version of this Act. The Clean Air Act of 1990 and the subsequent tighter standards for air quality set by the EPA caused the state of Minnesota to fall out of compliance. This paper will discuss the effect of the 1990 Clean Air Act on the Twin Cities. History of the Clean Air Act Beginning first with an overview of the Clean Air Act’s history, the Clean Air Act of 1990 was a set of amendments added to the already recognized piece of legislation from 1963. The 1963 legislation created a special section of the United States Public Health Service that would focus on air pollution research, monitoring and regulation techniques. Following research done, the 1967 Air Quality Act was passed which furthered government attention to both interstate transports’ effect on air pollution and ways to monitor air pollution in an ambient or localized way. In 1970 several amendments were added to the Clean Air Act of 1963 which greatly expanded federal authority. All of this authority was actually transferred to the newly created Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA. The EPA, an agency under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Public Health Service, was backed by governmental funding and authority to control air pollution from both mobile and stationary sources, in private and public industries (Gerbec, et al., 1995). For example, after the CAA of 1970, the EPA began regulat ing industries that were shown to be the causes of most public pollution. It began requiring auto makers to create emissions traps, in the form of catalytic converters, to ensure pollutants that create smog would not be unleashed(Smith, 1993).. The EPA also targeted the oil refineries who sold gasoline, requiring them to sell purer gasoline to higher risked areas – along with banning many types of gasoline that are leaded. Finally, the manufacturing sites of coal had to alter their smokestacks and install â€Å"scrubbers† that would prevent pollutants from being released into the atmosphere (Cooper, 2000). By targeting these industries, the EPA hoped to greatly reduce the amount of air pollution near these industrial centers. However, the EPA did not stop with industrial regulation. The agency also gave responsibility to state governments to regulate and enforce pollution-reducing methods. In the 1970 Clean Air Act, the EPA was given greater authority over state govern ments to mandate four new mandatory regulation programs that were mainly focused with air pollution. These four programs included the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, or NAAQS, the State Implementation Plans, or SIPs, the New Source Performance Standards, or NSPS, and finally the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants, or NESHAPs. Therefore a system of localized authority was created. Each

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 11

Strategic Management - Essay Example On the other hand there are also those approaches that are conceptual in nature such as policy, stakeholder, issue management, and adaptive approaches. The process of strategy implementation can be divided into various phases: understand history, explore the situation, uncover issues, identify strategy, assess feasibility, and implement strategic change. Finally the differences in strategic management between private and public sector organizations can be mapped along three dimensions: value generation, resource allocation, and accountability and trust. A strategy is a mechanism through which an entity differentiates itself in a competitive arena. In nearly every industry and sector today, strategy has become essential to staying in business. In the past, a business could sustain itself with a fairly static mission and customer base. Today’s marketplace is larger and more competitive with a better educated customer base. Moreover it is constantly changing at an ever increasing speed. These conditions require business leaders to constantly adjust their strategies to remain competitive in the marketplace. Strategic management is the â€Å"formulation and implementation of strategic plans and the orchestration and carrying out of strategic activities of vital concern to the total organization† (Koteen, 1997, p. 24). Strategic management is based on the following three characteristics: Strategic management is a dynamic process in which strategies are aligned to enhance performance and procure desired business results. Strategic management is a continuous activity in which the strategic direction of the organization is determined and subsequently maintained. Strategic management involves regular decision making on a daily basis to deal with constantly changing situations and a challenging environment. Strategic management is the most popular form of

Individual Annotated Bibliography (IAB) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Individual (IAB) - Annotated Bibliography Example s a need for standards to govern ethics in business so that whenever we feel that an organization has done something wrong, we can have a valid rationale, as well as a systematic and widely understandable point of argument. Andrew Crane is a Professor of Business Ethics at the School of Business in Schulich. He joined the school in January of 2007. He has also been the Chair of Business Ethics of the International Center for Corporate Social Responsibility (ICSSR) in Nottingham Business School. Before that, he had been at Cardiff University; here, he had been involved in the setting up of BRASS. With all these credentials, this is a very credible author whose insight cannot be brushed aside for anything else. These authors discuss the main ethical theories and their potential and value for business ethics. In looking at ethical theories, they suggest two perspectives from which to look at it. These include ethical relativism and ethical absolutism. These authors argue that, for the purposes and reasons of practical decision making in business, the theories of ethical absolutism and ethical relativism do necessarily make for positions that are particularly useful. For them, pluralism is the answer to the problems related to business ethics. Pluralism, as they explain, occupies the middle ground between relativism and absolutism. According to the pluralism point of view that these authors vouch for, different moral backgrounds and convictions are acceptable, and at the same time, a consensus in rules and basic principles in certain contexts in social domains deserve to be reached. Further on, these authors provide a line of thought that states that in business there is just benefit and harm to define morality. They get this statement from Kaler (1999). According to it, wrong and right are mainly to do with providing benefits and aiming to avoid harm at all times. The authors also criticize the egoistic theory of ethics. They state that the theory can and may only

Holdens Passive and Unwillingness Essay Example for Free

Holdens Passive and Unwillingness Essay Holden is the protagonist in the novel, Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger (1945). Holden is a character who tries to seek for dignity, but he has some flaws holding him back. Holden is passive and unwilling to examine himself and seek his own dignity. Three reasons for his tragic flaw are: his craziness, his immaturity, and his phoniness and madman stuff. The first reason for Holden’s flaw is his craziness. He acts this way because he is not normal like others. Something that he repeats constantly throughout the novel is, â€Å"He is the biggest phony.† This quote shows how Holden thinks and acts towards others. Holden acts this way because who falls in love too quickly with Jane and Sally. He also thinks this way because Jane and Sally equal perfection and he isn’t perfect like them or anybody else. Finally his thoughts are what can he do to be perfect like everyone else because he seems to be the only that is crazy. Therefore, Holden acts and thinks differently from everyone else because he is insane. The second reason for Holden’s flaw is his immaturity. He acts this way because Holden is always alone and have no family to support him except his younger sister, Phoebe. Something that is repeated constantly throughout the novel is, â€Å"Jane keeping her kings in the back row.† This symbol shows that Holden cannot separate the past from the present time. Holden thinks this way because he was always necking with Jane when they were young. He also thinks this way because of his immaturity of always wanting to have sex and always wanting to be a kid instead of growing up to is an adult. Finally his thoughts always want to be with Jane, but because of his immaturity Jane doesn’t choose him. Therefore, Holden acts immature towards others because he has been expelled from four different schools and no one is there to teach him his manners and to discipline him. The third reason for Holden’s flaw is his phoniness and his madman stuff. He acts this way because he doesn’t want to get help. Something that Holden repeats constantly in the novel is, â€Å"I’m a madman.† This quote shows that he has some personal issues going on with him, but he doesn’t want to get help. He thinks this way because his other lover, Jane is going out with others, but not him because he is a jealous person. He also thinks like this because it shows his low-self esteem and his view towards women. Finally his thoughts are I’m a madman because he is inexperienced with women. Therefore, Holden is a madman because of his jealousy toward women and never did have a real relationship with any women before. In conclusion, Holden is passive and unwilling to examine himself and seek his own dignity. Three reasons for his tragic flaws are that he is crazy, he is immature, and his phoniness and his madman things. Holden acts crazy because he is not normal like others and isn’t perfect at everything. He acts immature because no one is there to teach him his manners and no one is there to also teach him his respect and manners. Holden also acts like a madman because he is jealous of Jane and Sally. He also acts like this because he doesn’t like the private schools that he goes to. Therefore, I think that Holden needs to go get some serious help to become a good and a better person.

How Women Are Affected By Poverty Sociology Essay

How Women Are Affected By Poverty Sociology Essay In recent years, focus has been on discovering if poverty is gendered, that is to say to what extent women may be more at threat of poverty than men. In this essay I shall be discussing how women are affected by poverty and what factors lead to women being poorer than men. Peter Townsend et al (1987) have argued that there has been a feminisation of poverty, this term may be understood in various ways, it may refer to the increased risk of poverty or the increased visibility of womens poverty it may also refer to the reconstruction of poverty from a womans viewpoint. It is difficult to compare the poverty of men and women because statistics are usually based on households and this suggests that household incomes are shared evenly between adult members. Glendinning and Millar (1987 maintain that men get a larger share in most cases and this may echo their higher earning ability and the fact that in many households men still make the decisions of how money is spent. It has been shown that women are more likely to be poorer than men, although their poverty has often been masked behind studies that focused on male-headed households Ruspini (2000). Townsend acknowledges four groups which make up the majority of the female poor, these consist of women who take care of children and other dependents they are unpaid and are unable to take up employment. There are also lone women with children who dip in and out of employment. Then there are elderly women like pensioners who live alone. There are also women with low earnings where the incomes of others in the household do not contribute towards the total household income to enable the womens income to go over the poverty line. Women unquestionably tend to experience more poverty than men because their labour both unpaid and paid is undervalued, in addition women have always experienced work in a different way from men. A private and public split has always existed where women were seen as belonging in the private sphere of hearth and home and the ideologically constructed family, whereas men were seen as belonging in the public sphere of the market and the state. In terms of work, three main reasons for why womens poverty continues have been identified, the first is because a third of all women of working age still remain outside the labour market almost twice the proportion for men, they do not have equal access to the core of the labour market and they are disproportionately represented within part-time and lower paid jobs and on average women are paid less than men. The New Labour government has aimed to maximize labour force involvement by supporting (the idea of work-life balance) and trying to make it easier for people to merge paid work and family life. In-work benefits and tax credits were introduced as incentives however the working families tax credit has been more beneficial to women earners than those whose main income comes through male partners since it is more likely to be paid through the pay packet. The development of a National Childcare Strategy was also introduced but it does not measure up to the levels of childcare provi sion to be found in most other European countries. The second reason involves the responsibility women have for most of the tasks associated with social reproduction in the way of unpaid care work and domestic labour. The third reason is the sharing of income and resources within families, in the majority of cases this does not benefit women. Individuals can be poor in households with adequate incomes. This finding has important implications for policy initiatives aimed at the relief of poverty (Pahl 1989; Kempson 1996). Other forms of inequality have persisted within the public sphere, Gillian Pascall (1997) and others have argued that while women now make up a high proportion of the public sector workforce in healthcare, social work and education, they remain under represented in senior and management positions. This is characteristic of the sticky floor where women are concentrated in specific occupations with low pay and status and what they do at work is often similar to what they do at home, although the introduction of the minimum wage in April 1999 has been beneficial to women who are dependent on low paid work but not to other wage groups. Though most health service workers are women, most of the surgeons are men and it is largely men who control health and social services including services that concern women, for instance reproductive healthcare, as well as support for informal carers and the education system. This is typical of the glass ceiling where women are less likely to hold senior positions and when they do hold senior positions they have to work harder and for longer hours in jobs that are classed as mens work. In the 1970s 70 percent of managers were men and today 90 percent of judges are men. Anti discrimination legislation has sought to outlaw all forms of sex discrimination but this has mostly brought about advances for individual women but has not benefited all women although it has improved the practices of most employers as well as raising public awareness. While the education system no longer just prepares girls for domesticity, it is tending to equip them for sub- servient occupations especially in the public sector on the other hand it has also expanded womens options in the labour market. Despite the fact that women have been allowed to vote and participate in the democratic process on the same terms as men since 1928, in 2000 only 20 percent of Westminster Members of Parliament were women and in 2001 only 28 percent of local government councillors were women (EOC 2001). Although there has been a feminisation of the labour market, the increase in womens workforce participation can have disastrous effects on their health because of the double burden they have to shoulder, at home they take care of children and perform domestic tasks which are unpaid as well as doing their paid job. The General Household Survey of 1998 showed that the majority of carers were women who provided more than a hundred hours of care per week which was far more than any paid worker would do. It has been shown that caring is costly in various ways, for one there is loss of earnings and the rate of adults providing care who are in paid employment is low, the effect is even greater for women than men and greatest of all in the case of a mother providing care for a disabled child Arber and Ginn(1995): Baldwin (1985). In addition costs that are associated with disability like house adaptations to accommodate special equipment and higher transport costs. There is also the cost to the carer in terms of the stress and strain (Glendinning and Millar1992; Pahl 2006). Social policy is beginning to acknowledge the contribution of carers, one way was the introduction of the Carers Act 1985 which imposed an obligation on local authorities, however the support that carers receive is still limited. Financial support is also provided by the social security system with benefits like carers allowance and disabled persons tax credit for low paid disabled workers. There are also many ways in which care can be paid for Ungerson (2000); see also Ungerson (2006). The way social security is arranged and its effects on women can be attributed to the architects of the welfare system who were so used to patriarchal assumptions about respective roles of male breadwinners and female homemakers that the National Insurance system for example was founded on the idea that married women would mainly be financially dependent on their husbands and although obvious biased elements have since been removed, the inheritance of the assumptions on which the system was founded remains. Lewis and Piachaud (1992) demonstrated that women have always been poorer than men by showing the proportion of women amongst adults in receipt of poor relief or social assistance was at around 60 percent and was the same at the end of the 20th century. Women are the main recipients of most benefits and rely more on means tested benefits even though it means greater personal scrutiny, rather than contribution based benefits like jobseekers allowance, incapacity benefit and industrial injury benefit because these types of benefit rely on the recipient having been employed, and for women their work patterns are sometimes interrupted when they take time out to raise children and therefore their national insurance contributions are affected. Women are also in some cases hidden claimants because they receive benefits as dependents of male breadwinners, and for this reason, the welfare state may also function directly to make women dependent on men, although housing and social security provision has provided at least some measure of independence to women like those escaping from violent or dysfunctional relationships. Donzelot (1979) has observed that families seem to have extended functions and are subject by the welfare state to greater levels of surveillance and control for example womens performance as mothers and informal carers may be subject to supervision by healthcare and social service professionals. The family has not lost its functions, but it has lost control. It is still the major arena for the care of dependents, but traditional female tasks are now defined and managed outside the family and by men. Pascall (1997: 23). This is seen in the cases of lone parents 90 percent of whom are women who will have social assistance benefits withdrawn if they should cohabit and they can be compelled to cooperate with the making of child support assessments against the father(s) of their child(ren). In terms of work the, mother -as-work policy ignores that child care is also work and lone mothers stand little chance of becoming equal stakeholders because they must be both breadwinners and carers, and the position at present is that lone mothers are likely to be praised for the paid work they do and condemned as welfare dependent for the unpaid work they do and the eradication of the Lone Parent Premium to income support which directly disadvantaged many lone parents most of whom are women. In recent years studies have shown that pensioners are far more likely than the working population to experience ongoing poverty, between 1998 and 2001, 18 percent of pensioners experienced persistent poverty as compared to 7 percent of the working population. Studies have also found that in recent decades older women and those from ethnic minorities are more likely to experience poverty than other pensioners. Findings from these studies led Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown to state in 2002: Our aim is to end pensioner poverty in our country. the introduction of a pension credit in October 2003 which guaranteed a minimum income of half of those people in this age group in the UK attempted to meet this goal but the success of this policy depends on all those entitled to claiming the benefit actually doing so Flaherty et al (2004). The majority of people over state pension age do retire from the labour market, but as longevity has increased the labour markets have tightened and retirement has become in Townsends words a kind of mass redundancy (1991:6). As a group, old peoples vulnerability to poverty is not as great as it was in the post second world war period, but this should not mask the fact that there is now greater inequality between older people than before. Since the number of old people both as a proportion of the total population and in absolute terms has grown this means that pensioner poverty is still a major issue. The employment of older people can be sensitive to changes in the labour market conditions and they may be shut out of jobs when the demand for labour falls. Age concern (see McEwan 1990), argue that older people are frequently subject to discrimination if they choose to re-enter the labour market often on mistaken assumptions about their reliability and adaptability. Additionally when older people do eventually become frail they suffer the same problems associated with disability. The lack of provision of universal pension in this country is out of sync with most industrialised countries, although the introduction of stakeholder pensions for people with no access to private pensions and the introduction of free eye tests has gone some way in helping pensioners at a disadvantage. Feminists tend to view welfare state provision as being important for improving womens lives but it also reinforces female dependency on men and the sexual division of labour. Some strands of feminism stress that women are closer to nature and are naturally more caring and less aggressive and they address the world in a different voice Gilligan (1982). Other strands of feminism discard this view and assert that the gendered nature of society is the exact product of power relations and patriarchy. It is a result of the dominance of men over women and can be rejected. So in conclusion, having assessed and considered all the evidence and studies on gender and poverty, it is clear that although successive governments have through legislation and policies attempted to lessen the poverty of women, the gap between the sexes still exists and women are still very disadvantaged and are poorer than men and a major reason is the structure of the welfare state which contributes to and reinforces the differences.

Concepts of Innovation for Business Expansion

Concepts of Innovation for Business Expansion 1.0 INTRODUCTION This assignment looks at the all innovation aspects involved in the influence of the Bakhresa Group of Companies expansion in the East African region and beyond. The assignment considers the position of the company in relation to its environment at this current time and offers possible innovation aspect solutions to its growth possibilities. It has grown out of the need for a strategic look of the company at this time of global change and seeks to find out what the position of the company will be in the future. The work done of this assignment generated from main five questions that have been asked here in this assignment, and answers of each question have been discussed, The questions involved in this assignment as following: Bakhresa Identify the strand of organisation structure and innovation approach used by the group. Is it organic or mechanistic structure followed by the bakhresa group? Which one is more suitable to innovation and why? How can bakhresa group manage the tension between the need for creativity and efficiency? Discuss the main organisational characteristics that facilitate the innovation process in the bakhresa group. Explain the key individual roles within the innovation process and the activities they perform in the ipp group. How did bakhresa group establish innovative environment that propagates the virtuous circle of innovation? Explain its features 2.0 BACKGROUND OF BAKHRESA GROUP Said Salim Bakhresa Co.s and Bakhresa Food Products are a collection of companies each of which is part of a whole that forms the Bakhresa group. It has steadily been expanding its borders from Tanzania to the neighbouring countries and has been gaining a lot of market force over time. Countries operated in currently are:Tanzania, Malawi. Uganda, and Zanzibar This group of companies has specialised in undertaking certain projects in the neighbouring projects while at home, in Tanzania, it has diversified into the making and distribution of various products. Products made include the following: Maize flour, White bran for livestock, Biscuits, Bread (white, brown), Puratha (chapati) Ready to drink beverages It has also invested in the operation of a marine service that has tours to and from the island of Zanzibar. The main offices are on the mainland coast of Dar-es-Salaam where one can process tickets and further information necessary for future trip 3.0 REVIEW OF ENTREPRENEURRSHIP AND INNOVATION ENTREPRENEURSHIP Gibb and Hannon (2006) have defined entrepreneurship as a way of thinking, reasoning, and acting that results in the creation, enhancement, realization, and renewal of value for an individual, group, organization, and society. At the heart of this process is the creation or recognition of opportunities followed by the will and intuitive to seize the opportunities. Hisrich and Peters (2001) Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something different with value by devoting the necessary time and efforts, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks, and receiving rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence. Entrepreneurship involves the creation process creating something new of value. The creation has to have value to the entrepreneur and value to the society for which it is developed. Entrepreneurship requires the devotion of the necessary time and effort. and involves assuming the necessary risks. These risks take a variety of forms depending on the field, but generally risks centre around: Financial, Psychology, and Social areas. Also entrepreneurship involves rewards such as: High degree of independence- freedom from constraints, Get to use a variety of skills and talents INNOVATION Innovation can be defined as utilization of inventions to produce new and better quality of products that give greater satisfaction to the consumer and high profits to the entrepreneur. Innovation is the management of all the activities involved in the process of idea generation, technology development, manufacturing and marketing of a new (or improved) product or manufacturing process or equipment. Innovation is the successful implementation of novel and appropriate ideas (creativity) within an organization. Common causes of failure within the innovation process in most organizations can be distilled into five types: Poor goal definition, Poor alignment of actions to goals, Poor participation in teams, Poor monitoring of results and Poor communication and access to information Inventions are new discoveries, new ways of doing things and that products are the eventual outputs form the inventions, that process from new discovery to eventual product is the innovation process. Innovation as a process and not as a single event within organizations helps individuals who define problems, have ideas and perform creative linkages and associations that lead to inventions. Moreover, within organizations it is individuals in the role of managers who decide what activities should be undertaken, the amount of resources to be deployed and how they should be carried out. This has led to the development of so-called key individuals in the innovation process such as inventor, entrepreneur, business sponsor etc. Amabile et al. (1996) propose: All innovation begins with creative ideas . . . We define innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is necessary but not sufficient condition for the second. For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting for example in new or altered business processes within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided. 4.0 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND INNOVATION QUESITON 1 Identify the strand of organization structure and innovation approach used by the bakhresa group.is it organic or mechanistic structure followed by the bakhresa group? INNOVATION IN BAKHRESA group Bakhresa Group applying innovation has linked to performance of different and growth through improvements in efficiency, productivity, quality competitive positioning, market share etc. Innovation helps a Bakhresa Group business house to survive when the winds of change hinted the market caused by economic and social fluctuation of their environment; in fact Innovation has been used by Bakhresa Group as the process of conceptualizing an idea and then transforming an idea into a product/service. This leads the Bakhresa Group to develop and expand their activities in different parts of Tanzania and beyond neighbor countries. Bakhresa Group has successed by having a number of different disciplines such as commercial scanner, project leader contribute to understanding of the innovation process. Firms involved in Group they do not operate in vacuum. They trade with each other; they work together in some areas and compete in others. The role of some other firms is a major factor in understanding innovation. Organizational behavior of the Bakhresa Group had an important role on playing to understand and implement activities which has been necessary to ensure success. Significant discoveries and innovations have been associated with Bakhresa Group . ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND INNOVATION APPROACH USED BY THE BAKHRESA GROUP The structure of an organization is define by Mintzberg (1978) as the sum total of the ways in which it divides its labour into distinct tasks and then achieves coordination among them. There have been numerous useful studies exploring the link between organizational structure and innovative performance. Organic versus Mechanistic Organisational structures:- Organic Mechanistic 1,0 Channels of ?Communication Open with free information flow throughout the organization Highly structured, restricted information flow 2.0 Operating styles Allowed to vary freely Must be uniform and restricted 3.0 Authority for decisions Based on the expertise of the individual Based on formal line management position 4.0 Free Adaptation By the organization to changing circumstance Reluctant Adaptation 5.0 Emphasis on getting things done unconstrained by formally laid down procedures Emphasis on formally laid down procedures 6.0 Loose informal control with emphasis on norm of cooperation Tight control 7.0 Flexible on-job behaviour permitted to be shaped by the requirement Constrained on-job behaviour 8.0 Decision Making participation and group consensus Only superiors make decisions Source: Trott P.,(2004) Innovation Management and New Product Development. Mechanistic organization tends to offer a less suitable environment for managing the creativity and the innovation process. Organization Structures vis-à  -vis Innovation Formalisation There is some evidence of an inverse relationship between formalization and innovation. That is an increase in formalization of procedures will result in a disease in innovative activity. Complexity Where these are several different type of professional groups are working in an organization, it would represent a complex organization Centralisation It refers to the decision making activity and the location of power within an organization. In a decentralized organization fewer levels of hierarchy are usually required: This tends to lead to more responsive decision making cleser to the action. Organisational Size A small business with fewer employees differs significantly on terms of resources from an organization which is big size is a proxy variable for more meaningful dimensions such as economic and organization resources, including number of employees. ANALYISIS OF BAKHRESA GROUP The structure of Bakhresa Group controlled by the activities had performed by company under mechanistic structure caused by division of labours and their tasks, Innovation has being made up of a series of linked activities within a group. The environment of mechanistic has been offered less suitable condition for develop of innovation in Bakhresa Group Business. The culture of the Bakhresa Group is mechanistic structure are characterized as following: The channel of communication is highly structured, In organization structure based in MECHANISTIC, There is restricted information flow, there is no any free chance for information to pass from inside to outside of organization or vice versa. Bakhresa Group under mechanistic structure have been applying implication of restrict information flow with other companies. They making their information have secret issue within Bakhresa Group business and they had not allowed receipt of any information from outside that could influence changes within Group business. Operating styles are uniform and restricted. Bakhresa Group operating their activities under uniform and restricted styles, this style leads the operations being unique by influenced of the ability of making analysis of produce consistent quality products from different entities located in different areas to ensure high level of satisfaction needs to customers spread over, not only, in Tanzania but also in the neighboring countries where their business activities are operate. Authority for decision Based on formal line management position, the authority decisions taken by Bakhresa Group has depend on how it had being reviewed by managers and directors by following steps between low position up to highest position which has been undertaking into the particular organization and seems they can contribute positive results. After being reviewed, the authority for decisions for to be implemented must also proposed by the managers up to the top manager. The management is reluctant to adapt changing circumstances. Change management affects organizational behavior. Because those behaviors are rooted in emotional and psychological responses, leaders and managers of Bakhresa group find them difficult to manage. They understanding that there is an underlying consistency to many of these behaviors help demystify them so they can be proactively managed. Effective change management strategies incorporate an understanding of these common behaviors in deciding change initiative priorities, scope and scheduling, and they include explicit activities to manage the phases of these cycles as they occur throughout the change execution process Which one between mechanistic and organic is more suitable to innovation and why? It suggests that organic is more suitable to innovation, this organic is flexible structure, characterized by the absence of formality and hierarchy, support innovation more effectively than do mechanistic structures. The latter are characterized by long chains of command, rigid work methods, strict task differentiation, extensive procedure and well defined hierarchy. Nevertheless, flexible rather than mechanistic organizational structures are still seen, especially within the business management literature as necessary for successful industrial innovation, In general, an organic organization is more adaptable, more openly communicating, more consensual and more loosely controlled. The mechanistic organization tends to offer a less suitable environment for managing creativity and the innovation process. 5.0 CREATIVITY AND EFFICIENCY QUESTION 2 How can bakhresa group manage the tension between the need for creativity and efficiency? Bakhresa Group managing the tension between the need for creativity and efficiency has been categories as following: Efficiency gains within the bakhresa Group The efficient day to day operations within company have been conducted by application of stable routines which had been achieved in stable and controlled environments in. Creativity gains within the Bakhresa Group Creativity can be defined as the process of developing an original product, service or idea that makes a socially recognized contribution The development of new products/services requires creativity and room to try out new ideas this is achieved in a loose and flexible environment The creativity supported with actions and resources with the time to be creative: organization can try to build sufficient slack into the system to allow for creative thinking and tolerates errors and mistakes and successful ideas need to be rewarded However the long-term economic growth within Bakhresa depends on the ability of firms to make improvements to products and manufacturing processes. The firms has need to make room for creativity and innovation, that is, allow slack in the system. These then is the dilemma: how do firms try to reduce costs and slack to improve competitiveness on the one hand and then try to provide slack for innovation on the other? Bakhresa Group done balancing: the working to ensure there is a constant pressure to drive down costs and improve efficiency in its operations. At the same time it needs to provide room for new product development and improvements to be made the most obvious way forward is to separate production from r d. However there are many improvements and innovations that arise out of the operations of the firm. 6.0 ORGANISATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS QUESTION 3 Discuss The Main Organisational Characteristics That Facilitate The Innovation Process In The Bakhresa Group. Process innovation means the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method (including significant changes in techniques, equipment and/or software). Minor changes or improvements, an increase in production or service capabilities through the addition of manufacturing or logistical systems which are very similar to those already in use, ceasing to use a process, simple capital replacement or extension, changes resulting purely from changes in factor prices, customisation,regular seasonal and other cyclical changes, trading of new or significantly improved products are not considered innovations. innoviscop. The main organizational characteristics that facilitate the innovation process in the Bakhresa Group as following: Growth orientation;- long term grow rather than short term profit. It is characterized by a commitment to long-term growth rather than short-term profit. Not all companies first and foremost objective is growth. Some companies are established merely to exploit a short-term opportunity, other companies would like to maintain the company at its existing size: the objective of innovative companies is to grow the business the actively plan for the long-term. ANALYSIS OF BAKHRESA GROUP Bakhresa Group started in a humble manner with a small restaurant in the Port City of Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, in mid seventies, it has now emerged as a respected business group in the Region. The Group has its operations spread in Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia and most recently in Mozambique. Plans are in place to spread its wings to other countries. The group now boasts  of a turnover of more than Three Hundred Million United Sates Dollars and is a proud employer of more than two thousand employees associated directly. There are several companies under its umbrella and have investments mainly in Food and Beverage Sector, Packaging, Logistics and Real Estate Bakhresa Group has been working to expand their business by long term growth by emphasis long term vision and making implementation of it, those implications have been taken a long time, and some of them are still need a time to be implemented. Bakhresa succeed to making steps on growth of the manufactures of Food and Beverage Sector, Packaging, Logistics and Real Estate, product, which leads to the expand of branch company in different parts in Tanzania and beyond Tanzania.Bakhresa offers two groups of product and services: Food Beverages and Services. Commitment to technology It is characterized by the willingness to invest in the long-term development of technology. Bakhresa Group has exhibit patience in permitting ideas to geminate and develop overtime. this needs to be accompanied by a commitment to resources in terms of intellectual input without a long-term approach it would be extremely difficult for the company to attract good scientists. Eg: Azam Bakeries Company Ltd Azam Bakeries, the largest bakery in Tanzania, produces the popular Azam brand bread, cakes and donuts. The state of the art technology is used for producing the bakery products making the company proud of supplying  essential food in the country. It has a modern biscuit factory producing the finest varieties of biscuits. Many varieties of biscuits such as Chai, Creams, Glucose, Coconut, Nice, Marie, and Shortcake are popular in the country.The plant and equipment consists of the latest technology from Italy and has a high capacity automatic packing system capable of producing up to 300packets per minute. Vigilance It is characterized by the ability of the organization to be aware of its threats and opportunities. vigilance requires continual external scanning e.g. within the marketing function the activity would form part of market research and competitor analysis collecting valuable information is one thing, but relaying it to the necessary individuals and acting on it are two necessary associated requirements. Bakhresa Group has working to ensure that they got all external knowledge by doing analysis and researches that has been helping to known new strategic which required to be implemented for the results of achieving goals. Bakhresa Group has being faced with some opportunities and threats as indicated below: Opportunities Appreciation for high-quality local produced raw material such as maize, mills The new generation of individuals and companies has a far greater positive reception of domestic produced starch Current drive by government through the Tanzania Investment Centre and EPZ towards export of locally manufactured agricultural products Current government motive of Kilimo kwanza to promote agro-production Presence of export opportunities such as AGOA, SADCC, EAST AFRICA COMMUNITY, COMESA, etc Climate that favors large scale production of raw material throughout our country Raw material such as rice, maize, mill production initiatives that have started to emerge in different regions in Tanzania Availability of cheap manpower and fertile land for raw material production  locally such as maize, white Threats The present growth in the market may result in market saturation, through competition. This competition could emerge from a variety of given sources including;Established mass market companies that imports Development of new lines and vertically integrating so as to be totally in control of supplies and products being sold on the respective markets New marketing strategies and tactics by established products and companies Existing competition. Intolerable price increases by foreign suppliers may occur Farmers may decide to take their produce for food in case of hunge 7.0 INDIVIDUAL ROLES WITHIN THE INNOVATION PROCESS QUESITON 4 Explain The Key Individual Roles Within The Innovation Process And The Activities They Perform In The Bakhresa Group. Innovation process is essentially a people process and that organizational structure, formal decision making processes, delegation of authority and other formal aspects of a so-called well run company are not necessary conditions for successful technological innovation. The study of Rubenstein has revealed that certain individuals had fulfilled a variety of roles that had contributed to successful technological innovation. Heres the list of roles individual playing within Bakhresa Group facilitate the innovation process by engages;- Commercial scanner: This individual acquires vast amounts of information from outside the organization, often through net working. This may include market and technical information. Bakhresa Group have been working in finding and making analysis of the information from other successful same companies which operate the same products. The access of new ideas could the very Gatekeeper: This individual keeps informed of related developments that occur outside the organization through journals, conferences, colleagues and other companies. Passes information on to others, finds it easy to talk to colleagues. Serves as an informatted resource for others in the organization. Project leader: This individual provides the team with leadership and motivation. Plans and organizes the project ensures that administrative requirements are met. Provides necessary coronation among team members sees that Project moves forward effectively. Balances project goals with organizational needs. Examine and analyze the project for patterns to determine what is and is not working and help you tune your process so its most efficient and so you understand where to focus your resources on opportunities and to correct problems. Sponsor: This individual provides access to a power base within the Bakhresa Group: a senior person. Buffers the Project team from unnecessary organizational constraints. Helps the project team too get what it needs from other parts of the organization. Provides legitimacy and organizational confidence in the project. Heres the another addition list of roles individual playing in innovation process and: 2005 (innovationtools) Connectors A key element of innovation is building bridges to connect distant worlds-industries beyond your own-to generate new products/services and building networks to connect  people to create and distribute the new offering. Combining these attributes with several  other characteristics results in what we call a Connector. Connectors have these characteristics: Are a mile wide and an inch deep. Connectors have the ability to connect departments, organizations, and industries that normally would not be connected. Although they may be an expert in their own field, Connectors are generally people youd describe as a mile wide and an inch deep. They know things about a variety of fields and industries and can connect them. Are one degree separated. Think of the person or people you know who can get anything through the system. They know the person in the mailroom who can expedite getting things delivered fast, they know the administrative assistants that wield the power, and they know the person in purchasing who can order the thingamabob you need. They know everyone inside and outside the organization and can connect you with them. Build networks. Connectors build networks. Their ability to do so means that once an idea has been captured and evaluated (or even during evaluation), they can help you build the network of people to deliver the offering. Jump the tracks. Connectors can jump the tracks, making connections with other people, industries, technologies, ideas, distribution, partners-and they bring others along-which is critical. Because they connect with people, they have the ability to get others to see the benefits for jumping the track. Skyscrape. Connectors, because of their position or people they know in key positions, can easily get or make connections to the upper reaches of an organization. Its likely that you will need several Connectors, since not everyone has all the characteristics above. The person who knows how to work the internal system is usually not a skyscraper-they usually work behind the scenes. Thats ok. Its likely the Connectors you identify will know each other already. Heres what the Connector can do for your innovation initiative: create connections to other people and technologies within your organization, and connect you to customers and business partners who can help you outside your organization. Connectors dramatically reduce the time to find the appropriate connections and improve the chance youll make a valuable connection. Librarian The Librarian holds the key position of collecting ideas and providing organized access to others who can help build the library and make sense of the current collection. The Librarian provides an easy way to check in, check out (as in examine), and add to ideas,  solutions, problems, technologies, and needs. Think of a library where you can write in the books or write your own books, put them back on the shelf, and allow others to do the  same. Librarians have these characteristics. Librarians: Define the meta-data. Librarians determine what information is important to capture about an idea. Librarians determine what information is necessary to capture about an idea and to evaluate it. They determine the formats for the information. Help store and retrieve information. As the number of ideas grows, so does the  complexity of storing, finding and retrieving information about those ideas. Help others help themselves. The capture of information, storage, searching and information retrieval should be a self-help mechanism. A good librarian works themselves out of a job. Heres what the Librarian can do for your innovation initiative: define a consistent data model to help document and capture your ideas. Provide the meta-data and information tags to search and find ideas, and ensure easy retrieval. Help others in the team and associated with the team find information and add to it. Framer The Framer works with business functions and management to determine the appropriate  evaluation schemes and frameworks teams should use to evaluate ideas fairly, transparently and consistently. The Framer: Understands where the organization is trying to go. The strategic direction is critical in evaluating ideas, because new products and services will dictate how fast and far the organization can go in that direction. All evaluations must be made relevant to that direction. Understands who needs to be involved to make the evaluation meaningful. If key individuals or groups are left out of the evaluation, the idea may fail in execution because a key element is missing. Absent heads mean absent hands. The evaluation should include everyone who will be involved in executing and no more. The Framer needs to make sure all heads, hearts, and hands are accounted for in the evaluation process. Understands the need for transparency. Contributors need to understand the evaluation process and the rationale behind it. This will help ensure that ideas are contributed because contributors understand the process is fair; it will also help contributors provide information to make the evaluation easier. Understands how an idea should be evaluated. Different classes of ideas needto be evaluated different ways, but within those classes ideas should be evaluated consistently and in a way that allows ideas to be compared against each other so that the desired portfolio may be achieved. Heres what the Framer can do for your innovation initiative: construct the evaluation  frameworks which your team will use to evaluate your ideas, and ensure the evaluations  are consistent and transparent. Judge The Judge evaluates the ideas, using the Framers framework. Generally speaking there are many Judges for any idea often representing business functions (sales, marketing,  RD), regions or other business silos. Judges follow the evaluation criteria set by the Framers, who worked with all the entities involved in setting the evaluation framework. Judges have these characteristics. Judges: Evaluate ideas and determine which ideas should move forward to prototyping, which should be tabled until an internal or external criteria is met (e.g., good idea when the price of memory falls to one dollar per terabyte), and which should be shelved. Provide the verdict on which ideas merit further investigation and development by the organization. Document their decisions for posterity. Too often decisions are made about initiatives and ideas, and those decisions are not documented. Eventually the idea will be considered again. Without the documentation for the decision, a team may be forced to reconsider an idea that was previously rejected. Heres what a Judge can do for your innovation initiative: evaluate the idea against a standard framework and ensure all the business functions responsible for the idea have weighed in. Establish a verdict on the idea, to move the idea into production, end evaluation of the idea, license the idea to someone else or continue evaluation until conditions change. Document the rationale for the decision so that others can understand why the idea was approved or why it failed the evaluation. Prototyper Many organizations are comfortable with their new product development (NPD) process. Once